Juvenile Probation Officers’ Perceptions of Sanctions and Incentives as Compliance Strategies

Authors

  • Sydney Ingel George Mason University Author
  • Tess Drazdowski Oregon Social Learning Center Author
  • Danielle Rudes George Mason University Author
  • Michael McCart Oregon Social Learning Center Author
  • Jason Chapman Oregon Social Learning Center Author
  • Faye Taxman George Mason University Author
  • Ashli Sheidow Oregon Social Learning Center Author

DOI:

https://doi.org/10.52935/22.1317.11

Keywords:

Juvenile Probation, Juvenile Probation Officers, Probation Strategies, Sanctions, Incentives

Abstract

In juvenile probation, noncompliance with probation conditions is a common occurrence. To deal with this, juvenile probation officers (JPOs) may use different strategies, such as sanctions and incentives. This study uses survey and focus group data from 19 JPOs to evaluate their perceptions of the effectiveness of sanctions and incentives in reducing youth noncompliance, specifically in the form of substance use. Results show that there are two distinct groups of JPOs: those who believe sanctions are an effective deterrent strategy and those who do not. Perceptually and demographically these two groups contain significant differences. Notably, both groups have similar views of social incentives, but JPOs who believe sanctions are ineffective are significantly more likely to have positive views of tangible incentives. This study has implications for how the field of juvenile probation can target JPO perceptions to move toward incentive-based strategies rather than sanction-based strategies for reducing youth substance use.

Author Biographies

  • Sydney Ingel, George Mason University

    Sydney N. Ingel, M.A.

    Sydney N. Ingel, M.A., is a doctoral student in Criminology, Law and Society at George Mason University. She earned her master’s degree at George Mason University and works as a graduate research assistant at the Center for Advancing Correctional Excellence (ACE!). Her research interests include corrections, re-entry, and qualitative methods.

  • Tess Drazdowski, Oregon Social Learning Center

    Tess K. Drazdowski, Ph.D.

    Tess K. Drazdowski, Ph.D., is a Research Scientist and licensed clinical psychologist who joined the Oregon Social Learning Center after completing her postdoctoral fellowship at UCLA’s Integrated Substance Use Programs in the Semel Institute and her clinical internship at the University of Miami Miller School of Medicine Mailman Child Development Center. She holds a dual Ph.D. in clinical/developmental psychology from Virginia Commonwealth University.

  • Danielle Rudes, George Mason University

    Danielle S. Rudes, Ph.D.

    Danielle S. Rudes, Ph.D., is an Associate Professor of Criminology, Law and Society and the Deputy Director of the Center for Advancing Correctional Excellence (ACE!) at George Mason University. She received her Ph.D. from the University of California, Irvine. She is a qualitative researcher whose methods include ethnographic observation, interviews, and focus groups with over 19 years of experience working with corrections agencies at the federal, state and local county levels including prisons, jails, probation/parole agencies and problem-solving courts.

  • Michael McCart, Oregon Social Learning Center

    Michael R. McCart, Ph.D.

    Michael R. McCart, Ph.D., is a licensed clinical psychologist with specialized training in cognitive, behavioral, and family systems approaches to treating serious problems in adolescents and emerging adults. He earned his Ph.D. in clinical psychology from the University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee and has been a Senior Research Scientist at the Oregon Social Learning Center (OSLC) since 2014.

  • Jason Chapman, Oregon Social Learning Center

    Jason E. Chapman, Ph.D.

    Jason E. Chapman, Ph.D., is a Senior Research Scientist at the Oregon Social Learning Center who specializes in research design, measurement development and evaluation, and advanced statistical methods. His research includes studies evaluating the efficacy, effectiveness, dissemination, and implementation of evidence-based practices across mental health, child welfare, and justice settings. Additionally, Dr. Chapman focuses on IRT-based development and evaluation of instruments for measuring intervention and implementation fidelity.

  • Faye Taxman, George Mason University

    Faye S. Taxman, Ph.D.

    Faye S. Taxman, Ph.D., is a University Professor at George Mason University and the Director of the Center for Advancing Correctional Excellence (ACE!). Dr. Taxman is recognized for her work in the development of the seamless systems of care models that link the criminal justice system with other service delivery systems, as well as reengineering probation and parole supervision services, and organizational change models.

  • Ashli Sheidow, Oregon Social Learning Center

    Ashli J. Sheidow, Ph.D.

    Ashli J. Sheidow, Ph.D., is a Senior Research Scientist and Science Director at the Oregon Social Learning Center (OSLC). Prior to joining OSLC, she was Professor in the Family Services Research Center of the Medical University of South Carolina. She earned her Ph.D. in 2001 in clinical psychology from the University of Illinois at Chicago, where she trained at the Institute for Juvenile Research and Cook County Hospital.

References

Belenko, S., Johnson, I. D., Taxman, F. S., & Rieckmann, T. (2018). Probation staff attitudes toward substance abuse treatment and evidence-based practices. International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology, 62(2), 313-333.

Charmaz, K. (2005). Grounded theory in the 21st century: A qualitative method for advancing social justice research. Handbook of Qualitative Research, 3(7), 507-535.

Cox, S., Wilcock, P., & Young, J. (1999). Improving the repeat prescribing process in a busy general practice. A study using continuous quality improvement methodology. BMJ Quality & Safety, 8(2), 119-125.

Damschroder, L. J., Aron, D. C., Keith, R. E., Kirsh, S. R., Alexander, J. A., & Lowery, J. C. (2009). Fostering implementation of health services research findings into practice: a consolidated framework for advancing implementation science. Implementation Science, 4(1), 1-15.

Deming, W. E. (1986). Out of the Crisis. MIT press.

Dennis, M. L., Smith, C. N., Belenko, S., Knight, D., McReynolds, L., Rowan, G., ... & Wiley, T. (2019). Operationalizing a behavioral health services cascade of care model: Lessons learned from a 33-site implementation in juvenile justice community supervision. Federal Probation, 83(2), 52-64.

Gatti, U., Tremblay, R. E., & Vitaro, F. (2009). Iatrogenic effect of juvenile justice. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 50(8), 991-998.

Godley, M. D., Godley, S. H., Dennis, M. L., Funk, R. R., Passetti, L. L., & Petry, N. M. (2014). A randomized trial of assertive continuing care and contingency management for adolescents with substance use disorders. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 82(1), 40.

Goldstein, N. E., Gale-Bentz, E., McPhee, J., NeMoyer, A., Walker, S., Bishop, S., ... & Schwartz, R. G. (2019). Applying the National Council of Juvenile and Family Court Judges’ resolution to juvenile probation reform. Translational issues in psychological science, 5(2), 170.

Higgins, S. T., Silverman, K., & Heil, S. H. (Eds.). (2007). Contingency management in substance abuse treatment. Guilford Press.

Hjalmarsson, R. (2008). Criminal justice involvement and high school completion. Journal of Urban Economics, 63(2), 613-630.

Hoeve, M., McReynolds, L. S., Wasserman, G. A., & McMillan, C. (2013). The influence of mental health disorders on severity of reoffending in juveniles. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 40(3), 289-301.

Holloway, E. D., Cruise, K. R., Downs, S. M., Monahan, P. O., & Aalsma, M. C. (2017). Juvenile probation officer self-assessed mental health competency as a predictor of case management practices. Administration and Policy in Mental Health and Mental Health Services Research, 44(4), 534-546.

Kaplan, H. C., Brady, P. W., Dritz, M. C., Hooper, D. K., Linam, W. M., Froehle, C. M., & Margolis, P. (2010). The influence of context on quality improvement success in health care: a systematic review of the literature. The Milbank Quarterly, 88(4), 500-559.

Kirby, K. C., Benishek, L. A., Dugosh, K. L., & Kerwin, M. E. (2006). Substance abuse treatment providers’ beliefs and objections regarding contingency management: Implications for dissemination. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 85(1), 19-27.

Lehman, W. E., Greener, J. M., & Simpson, D. D. (2002). Assessing organizational readiness for change. Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment, 22(4), 197-209.

McReynolds, L. S., Schwalbe, C. S., & Wasserman, G. A. (2010). The contribution of psychiatric disorder to juvenile recidivism. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 37(2), 204-216.

Mendel, R.A. (2011). No place for kids: The case for reducing juvenile incarceration. Annie E. Casey Foundation.

Miller, J., & Palmer, K. (2020). Juvenile probation officer decision-making in a reforming state: Assessing the application of evidence-based principles. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 47(9), 1136-1155.

Mulvey, E. P., & Iselin, A. M. R. (2008). Improving professional judgments of risk and amenability in juvenile justice. The Future of Children/Center for the Future of Children, the David and Lucile Packard Foundation, 18(2), 35.

Nagin, D. S., & Pogarsky, G. (2001). Integrating celerity, impulsivity, and extralegal sanction threats into a model of general deterrence: Theory and evidence. Criminology, 39(4), 865-892.

National Council of Juvenile and Family Court Judges [NCJFCJ]. (2017). Resolution Regarding Juvenile Probation and Adolescent Development.

NeMoyer, A., Goldstein, N. E., McKitten, R. L., Prelic, A., Ebbecke, J., Foster, E., & Burkard, C. (2014). Predictors of juveniles’ noncompliance with probation requirements. Law and Human Behavior, 38(6), 580.

Nguyen, A.T. & Pendleton, M. (2020). Recognizing Race in Language: Why We Capitalize “Black” and “White”. Center for the Study of Social Policy.

Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention (OJJDP). (2019). Characteristics and Trends of Delinquency Cases Resulting in Probation. U.S. Department of Justice.

Phelps, M. S. (2018). Ending mass probation. The Future of Children, 28(1), 125-146.

Phillips, E. L., Phillips, E. A., Fixsen, D. L., & Wolf, M. M. (1971). Achievement Place: Modification of the Behaviors of Pre‐Delinquent Boys within a Token Economy 1, 2. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 4(1), 45-59.

Rudes, D. S., Portillo, S., & Taxman, F. S. (2021). The legitimacy of change: Adopting/Adapting, implementing and sustaining reforms within community corrections agencies. The British Journal of Criminology, 61(6), 1665-1683.

Rudes, D. S., Taxman, F. S., Portillo, S., Murphy, A., Rhodes, A., Stitzer, M., ... & Friedmann, P. D. (2012). Adding positive reinforcement in justice settings: Acceptability and feasibility. Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment, 42(3), 260-270.

Rudes, D. S., Viglione, J., & Taxman, F. S. (2011). Juvenile probation officers: How the perception of roles affects training experiences for evidence-based practice implementation. Federal Probation, 75, 3.

Schoenwald, S.K. & Sheidow, A.J. (2003). Personnel Data Inventory – Revised. Family Services Research Center.

Schubert, C. A., Mulvey, E. P., & Glasheen, C. (2011). Influence of mental health and substance use problems and criminogenic risk on outcomes in serious juvenile offenders. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 50(9), 925-937.

Schwalbe, C. S. (2012). Toward an integrated theory of probation. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 39(2), 185-201.

Schwalbe, C. S., & Maschi, T. (2009). Investigating probation strategies with juvenile offenders: The influence of officers’ attitudes and youth characteristics. Law and Human Behavior, 33(5), 357-367.

Schwartz, K., Alexander, A. O., Lau, K. S., Holloway, E. D., & Aalsma, M. C. (2017). Motivating compliance: Juvenile probation officer strategies and skills. Journal of Offender Rehabilitation, 56(1), 20-37.

Scott, C. K., Dennis, M. L., Grella, C. E., Funk, R. R., & Lurigio, A. J. (2019). Juvenile justice systems of care: Results of a national survey of community supervision agencies and behavioral health providers on services provision and cross-system interactions. Health & Justice, 7(1), 1-18.

Sheidow, A. J., McCart, M. R., Chapman, J. E., & Drazdowski, T. K. (2020). Capacity of juvenile probation officers in low-resourced, rural settings to deliver an evidence-based substance use intervention to adolescents. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors, 34(1), 76.

Sickmund, M. & Puzzanchera, C. (2014). Juvenile offenders and victims: 2014. National Center for Juvenile Justice.

Sickmund, M., Sladky, A. & Kang, W. (2020). Easy Access to Juvenile Court Statistics: 1985–2018. National Center for Juvenile Justice.

Skinner, B.F. (1969). Contingencies of Reinforcement: A Theoretical Analysis. Prentice Hall.

Sloas, L., Murphy, A., Wooditch, A., & Taxman, F. S. (2019). Assessing the use and impact of points and rewards across four federal probation districts: A contingency management approach. Victims & Offenders, 14(7), 811-831.

Stanger, C., Budney, A. J., Kamon, J. L., & Thostensen, J. (2009). A randomized trial of contingency management for adolescent marijuana abuse and dependence. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 105(3), 240-247.

Taxman, F.S. & Belenko, S. (2011). Implementing evidence-based practices in community corrections and addiction treatment. Springer Science & Business Media.

Van der Put, C. E., Creemers, H. E., & Hoeve, M. (2014). Differences between juvenile offenders with and without substance use problems in the prevalence and impact of risk and protective factors for criminal recidivism. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 134, 267-274.

Vincent, G. M., Thomas Grisso, Anna Terry, and Steven M. Banks. 2008. “Sex and Race Differences in Mental Health Symptoms in Juvenile Justice: The MAYSI-2 National Meta-Analysis.” Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 47(3):282–90.

Ward, G., & Kupchik, A. (2010). What drives juvenile probation officers? Relating organizational contexts, status characteristics, and personal convictions to treatment and punishment orientations. Crime & Delinquency, 56(1), 35-69.

Wasserman, G. A., McReynolds, L. S., Schwalbe, C. S., Keating, J. M., & Jones, S. A. (2010). Psychiatric disorder, comorbidity, and suicidal behavior in juvenile justice youth. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 37(12), 1361-1376.

Downloads

Published

03/21/2026

Issue

Vol. 36 No. 1 (2022): JAJJS 2022 Issue

Section

Articles

License

Copyright (c) 2022 Journal of Applied Juvenile Justice Services

Creative Commons License

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License.

How to Cite

Juvenile Probation Officers’ Perceptions of Sanctions and Incentives as Compliance Strategies. (2026). Journal of Applied Juvenile Justice Services, 36(1), 27-41. https://doi.org/10.52935/22.1317.11

Similar Articles

1-10 of 47

You may also start an advanced similarity search for this article.